To measure the activity of a promoter, one can link it to a reporter gene, such as the genes encoding b-galactosidase, CAT, or luciferase, and let 

the easily assayed reporter gene products indicate the activity of the promoter.

TLS Online TPP Program

#Id: 7061

#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

Changes in the genetic code in bacterial or eukaryotic nuclear genomes usually assign amino acids to stop codons or change a codon so that it no longer specifies an amino acid.

TLS Online TPP Program

#Id: 7062

#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

In a phenomenon called codon bias, some codons for a particular amino acid are used more frequently (sometimes much more frequently) than others. A minimum of 32 tRNAs are required to translate all 61 codons (31 to encode the amino acids and 1 for initiation) due to wobble positioning

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#Id: 7063

#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

TLS Online TPP Program

#Id: 7064

#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

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#Id: 7065

#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

The addition of the 3’-CCA is catalyzed by the enzyme tRNA nucleotidyltransferase, which functions as a nontemplate-directed RNA polymerase.

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#Id: 7066

#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

Multiple tRNAs representing the same amino acid are called isoaccepting tRNAs; because they are all recognized by the same synthetase, they are also described as its cognate tRNAs.