Invertebrates generally have fairly high production efficiencies  (about 10–50%) than vertebrate. Ectotherms, typically have production efficiencies of around 10%, and birds and mammals, which are endotherms, have production efficiencies in the range of 1–2%.

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

As a chromosome with a new gene duplicate spreads through a population, there is polymorphism in the number of copies of the gene that individuals carry. This situation, called copy number variation.

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

Mixtures of exons duplicated from genes with different functions can generate new genes with new functions, a process that is called exon shuffling.

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

Gene duplication happens on a massive scale when whole genome duplication occur. whole genome duplication are two type, 

1.Autopolyploid

2.Allopolyploid

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

Genetic exchange also happens between distantly related organisms by horizontal gene transfer, or HGT.

HGT is particularly important to prokarytotes and is the most common way by which they acquire new genes.

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

Intimacy between the genomes of the mitochondria and the nucleus within a cell, it may not be surprising that extensive HGT has occurred between them