Constitutively active Ras proteins (RasD) 

Replacement of the normal glycine 12 with any other amino acid (except proline) blocks the functional binding of GAP proteins and in essence “locks” Ras in the active GTP-bound state.

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Constitutively active Raf kinase

a glutamic acid substitution for the valine at position 600

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MEK is a dual-specificity protein kinase

phosphorylates its target proteins on both tyrosine and serine/threonine

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In humans, there are three RAS, three Raf, two MEK, and two MAP proteins.

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Mammalian MAP kinases include  Jun N-terminal kinases and p38 kinases, which are activated by signaling pathways in response to various types of stresses

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Phosphorylation by MEK at Y-185 and T-183 in activation loop of MAP kinase leads to a marked conformational change & promotes MAP kinase activation and dimerization.

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