Survivorship (lx) is calculated by dividing the number of individuals in an age class by the number in the original cohort;

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

A third way that gene duplicates arise is by retrotransposition.

Here the messenger RNA from a gene is reverse-transcribed to DNA, which is then integrated into the genome.

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

As a chromosome with a new gene duplicate spreads through a population, there is polymorphism in the number of copies of the gene that individuals carry. This situation, called copy number variation.

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

Mixtures of exons duplicated from genes with different functions can generate new genes with new functions, a process that is called exon shuffling.

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

Gene duplication happens on a massive scale when whole genome duplication occur. whole genome duplication are two type, 

1.Autopolyploid

2.Allopolyploid

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#Unit 11. Evolution and Behavior

Genetic exchange also happens between distantly related organisms by horizontal gene transfer, or HGT.

HGT is particularly important to prokarytotes and is the most common way by which they acquire new genes.