The nonvolatile terpene antiherbivore compounds are the limonoids, a group of triterpenes (C30) well known as bitter substances in citrus fruit.

The most powerful deterrent to insect feeding known is azadirachtin

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When plants recognize elicitors from insect saliva, An increase in the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) is an early signal that mediates insect elicitor–induced responses.

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In Arabidopsis, a calmodulin-binding transcriptional

regulator called IQD1 mediates of defense responses against insect herbivory. IQD1 binds calmodulin, a major Ca2+-binding protein

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JA initiates biosynthesis of defense proteins as a-amylase inhibitors. Most of these proteins interfere with the herbivore digestive system.

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Plant species produce lectins, defensive proteins that bind to carbohydrates or carbohydrate-containing proteins.

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Plant species produce cysteine protease, which disrupt the

peritrophic membrane that protects the gut epithelium of many insects.

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Antidigestive proteins in plants are the proteinase inhibitors. Found in legumes, tomato, and other plants, these substances block the action of herbivore proteolytic enzymes