Absorption of light causes rapid photoisomerization of the bound cis-retinal to the all-trans isomer, triggering a conformational change in opsin that activate the Gαt.

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Constitutively active Raf kinase

a glutamic acid substitution for the valine at position 600

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MEK is a dual-specificity protein kinase

phosphorylates its target proteins on both tyrosine and serine/threonine

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In humans, there are three RAS, three Raf, two MEK, and two MAP proteins.

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Mammalian MAP kinases include  Jun N-terminal kinases and p38 kinases, which are activated by signaling pathways in response to various types of stresses

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Phosphorylation by MEK at Y-185 and T-183 in activation loop of MAP kinase leads to a marked conformational change & promotes MAP kinase activation and dimerization.

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