Plant viruses have small genomes; most encode only three to 10 proteins.

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In Arabidopsis, a calmodulin-binding transcriptional

regulator called IQD1 mediates of defense responses against insect herbivory. IQD1 binds calmodulin, a major Ca2+-binding protein

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JA initiates biosynthesis of defense proteins as a-amylase inhibitors. Most of these proteins interfere with the herbivore digestive system.

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Plant species produce lectins, defensive proteins that bind to carbohydrates or carbohydrate-containing proteins.

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Plant species produce cysteine protease, which disrupt the

peritrophic membrane that protects the gut epithelium of many insects.

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Antidigestive proteins in plants are the proteinase inhibitors. Found in legumes, tomato, and other plants, these substances block the action of herbivore proteolytic enzymes

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Many plants release a specific bouquet of volatile organic compounds when attacked by insect herbivores. These volatiles can consist of compounds from all major pathways for secondary metabolites including terpenoids (mono- and sesquiterpenes), alkaloids (indole), and phenylpropanes (methyl salicylate), as well as green-leaf volatiles.