Genetic redundancy means that two or more genes are performing the same function and that inactivation of one of these genes has little or no effect on the biological phenotype

Redundancy seems to be widespread in genomes of higher organisms

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#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

EMS causes ethylation of the bases in DNA at the 7-N and the 6-O positions of G cause G:C → A:T transitions.

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#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

Alkylating agents induce all types of mutations, including transitions, transversions, frameshifts, and even chromosome aberrations.

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#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

hydroxylating agent hydroxylamine (NH2OH) induces only G:C → A:T transitions not reversal.

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#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

When DNA is treated with hydroxylamine, the amino group of cytosine is hydroxylated.

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#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

X rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays is ionizing radiation and ultraviolet light is nonionizing radiation.

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#Unit 3. Fundamental Processes

1 roentgen unit is a quantity of X ray that produces 2.083X109 ion pairs in one cubic centimeter of air at 0C and a pressure of 760 mm of mercury.