Phytochromes are photoreceptors that absorb red and far-red light most strongly (600–750 nm)

they also absorb blue light (350-500 nm) and UV-A radiation (320–400 nm).

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ATP synthesis kinetics is measured by using Kinetic Isotope Effect (KIE) using radioisotope of oxygen ( O¹⁸ ).

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F1 has nine subunits of five different types, with the composition α₃ β₃ ϒδε

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Each of the three β subunits has one catalytic site for ATP synthesis.

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Fo complex, with its proton pore, is composed of three subunits, a, b, and c, in the proportion ab₂ C_n, where n ranges from 8 to 15 in various organisms; in yeast, it is 10.

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Subunit c is a small (Mr 8,000), very hydrophobic polypeptide, consisting almost entirely of two transmembrane helices, with a small loop extending from the matrix side of the membrane

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