III.Vascular plants  (pteridophyta)

Vascular cryptogam

Sporophyte- Dominating phase

Vascular tissue makes its appearance

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The overall effect of migration is twofold: 

1.it prevents populations from becoming genetically different from one another, 

2.it increases genetic variation within populations.

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Amount of change in allelic frequency due to migration

m= proportional of migratory individual in  recipient population

qI – frequency of allele in source population  

qII – frequency of allele in recipient population

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Adaptation is a characteristic that enhances the survival or reproduction of organisms .

Adaptations have evolved by natural selection, which is the centerpiece of On the Origin of Species

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Adaptation has costly side effects

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Fitness 

Fitness is defined as the relative reproductive success of one genotype compared with other genotypes in the population